The Context and Causes of Identified Crime Patterns
The purpose of this section is to provide information on some
wider contexts and causes of crime which are sometimes overlooked in
'area based analyses'. To analyse crime in a broader context, it may
be helpful to be aware of some of the many theories that underpin
both the interpretation of crime patterns and the consequent
responses to them. This section will therefore look at a number of
theories that can explain how, and why crime occurs as well the
responses to crime and disorder.
This section will not however deal with wider sociological
theories of crime such as those based on structural conflict
(useful, for example, in understanding racial violence); firstly
because a brief synopsis would not do justice to the subject area
and, secondly because there are difficulties with both the
operational response to such theories as well as problems associated
with their contested validity. Nevertheless it is worth stressing
that not all community based problems have solutions that are in the
community. An awareness of this point is essential to
practitioners if only as a guide to realistic objectives.
Much crime analysis tends to focus on the area-based analysis of
crime with the aim of identifying crime hotspots. The importance of
paying attention to the analysis of the spatial, temporal, victim
and offender dimensions of crime and disorder have been emphasised.
However, if holistic crime and disorder reduction strategies are to
be developed, it is also important to include adequate consideration
of the broader context and causes of crime and disorder patterns.
Hirschfield and Bowers illustrate the importance of broader
analysis:
"The extent to which problems in high-crime areas are
problems of high-crime areas will vary according to the
nature of the offence. Clearly, there are situations where the
characteristics of an area render it highly criminogenic, for
example, where different land uses converge or where surveillance
and guardianship are poor. However, the area and its characteristics
cannot be held responsible for generating criminal and anti-social
behaviour within the whole population or for changes in lifestyle
and routine activities that make people more vulnerable to
victimisation. These factors are influenced by broader social,
demographic, economic and cultural changes operating at societal
level rather than at that of the neighbourhood" (quoted from
Hirschfield and Bowers 2000: 211)
Crime as
"Opportunity" - Criminologies of everyday life
A number of related criminological theories have focused on
‘crime as opportunity’. Collectively, they are sometimes
referred to as the ‘criminologies of everyday life’ (Garland
1996, 2000). They include rational choice theory, routine activities
theory and lifestyle theory.
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Rational Choice theory says that crime is committed by
rational individuals who balance the advantages of opportunity
with the costs of effort, detection and punishment (see Clarke
1995).
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Routine activity theory says that we should "focus on
crime incidents rather than on offenders themselves, examining
how these incidents originate in the routine activities of
everyday life" (Felson 1994: xii).
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Lifestyle theory says that differential risks of
victimisation are partly a function of the victim’s lifestyle
and a person’s work and leisure activities vary their exposure
to potential offenders. (see Hindelang et.al. 1978)
Situational crime prevention draws upon Rational Choice theory,
Routine Activity theory and Lifestyle theory, and in particular the
focus on opportunity. Hence, situational crime prevention focuses on
the reduction of opportunity by increasing effort, increasing risks
or reducing the reward of crime. For more information see the linked
table below.
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Analysis
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